Pedagogies of Powers: Comparing India and China’s Education Systems

The global trend toward standardised testing and performance-driven education has led many nations to emphasise academic achievement through examination-focused systems. China’s education model is a prominent example of this approach, consistently producing students who excel in international assessments. However, critics contend that while China’s examination-centric framework fosters academic rigor, it often does so at the expense of creativity, critical thinking, and emotional well-being. The high-stakes nature of the gaokao, China’s intensely competitive college entrance exam, underscores these challenges, as students face immense pressure to perform, often prioritising rote learning over holistic development.

India’s indigenous education system provides a valuable alternative, deeply rooted in community-centric values, ethical principles, and practical learning. Historically, this approach embraced a holistic model, intertwining moral instruction, intellectual growth, and skill development within culturally meaningful frameworks. Traditional institutions such as pathshalas, madrasas, and gurukuls prioritised the cultivation of both the mind and character, encouraging students to harmonise knowledge with real-world applications and social responsibilities. This integrated framework not only nurtured individual growth but also strengthened societal cohesion by aligning education with the cultural and economic needs of communities. These indigenous practices resonate strongly with Gandhian educational philosophy, which emphasises self-reliance, empathy, and ethical development as fundamental pillars of learning. Gandhi envisioned education as a means to nurture well-rounded individuals who contribute meaningfully to society, integrating intellectual growth with practical skills and moral values. His approach underscores the importance of connecting education with real-life experiences and community welfare, aligning closely with the principles of India’s traditional learning systems.

Community-Centric Learning

The foundation of India’s indigenous education system lies in its community-centric approach, where learning extended beyond formal institutions and seamlessly blended with everyday life. Pathshalas, madrasas, and Gurukuls prioritised moral development, practical skills, and social responsibility, fostering a holistic model that nurtured ethical values and cultural relevance while addressing the practical needs of society. In these settings, students were inspired to engage with community elders, spiritual leaders, and local artisans, gaining insights into the interconnectedness of knowledge, culture, and the environment. This approach cultivated a deep understanding of societal and ecological interdependence, embedding learning within the lived experiences of the community. This approach nurtured a strong sense of belonging and instilled respect for community values, equipping students to grow into responsible, ethical individuals committed to the well-being of their society.

Unlike standardised education systems, indigenous education was inherently flexible and adaptive, designed to meet the unique needs of diverse communities. Teachers customised their lessons to align with each student’s abilities and the local context, emphasising practical skills and moral values that were directly relevant to the community’s cultural and economic environment. Learning in the indigenous system was experiential, with a strong focus on hands-on practices and moral guidance. Students engaged directly with their surroundings, acquiring practical skills that were essential to their communities. For instance, in agrarian societies, children learned farming techniques, environmental care, and local customs from a young age, gaining knowledge that contributed to both individual and collective well-being. This approach ensured that education was not just academic but deeply intertwined with the values and needs of the community. Indigenous education played a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage by teaching in local languages, allowing students to maintain a strong connection to their traditions. This approach not only facilitated the transmission of knowledge but also nurtured a deep sense of cultural identity. By engaging with their native languages, students were able to understand and appreciate their history, customs, and values, ensuring that these traditions remained alive and relevant for future generations.

This flexibility stands in stark contrast to the rigidity of the Chinese education system, where Mandarin is the mandatory medium of instruction. The emphasis on a monolingual approach in China often leads to the marginalisation of regional dialects, limiting cultural representation and diminishing students’ connection to their local heritage. As a result, students may find themselves distanced from the rich diversity of their linguistic and cultural backgrounds, which can affect their sense of identity and belonging. India’s indigenous education system, by embracing linguistic diversity, not only strengthens cultural identity but also enhances cognitive development. Allowing students to learn in their native languages helps them better grasp complex concepts and fosters a deeper connection to their heritage. This approach encourages intellectual engagement and emotional resonance, supporting both the preservation of local cultures and the holistic development of students.

Oral Traditions and Experiential Learning

Oral traditions played a vital role in India’s indigenous education system, facilitating the dynamic and interactive transfer of knowledge across generations. Through folktales, epics, and parables, students learned ethical principles, social values, and life lessons in an engaging and memorable way. Storytelling became a powerful educational tool, allowing complex ideas to be conveyed in a relatable format while fostering critical thinking, empathy, and a sense of cultural continuity. This method not only preserved history and tradition but also encouraged students to reflect on their roles within the community. These narratives were rich with historical and mythological figures who exemplified virtues such as courage, compassion, and humility, offering students moral role models to emulate. Stories from epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata provided not only entertainment but also valuable lessons on ethics, responsibility, and the complexities of human behaviour. Through these tales, students learned the importance of making ethical decisions in both personal and social contexts, while also understanding the consequences of their actions. This method of teaching instilled a strong sense of morality, integrity, and respect for societal values.

The experiential nature of indigenous learning enabled students to acquire knowledge through active participation and direct engagement with their environment. By observing and taking part in daily activities such as crafting, farming, and other traditional practices, students not only developed practical skills but also gained a deeper understanding of the values of hard work, self-sufficiency, and resourcefulness. This hands-on approach to learning emphasised the connection between knowledge and action, preparing students to contribute meaningfully to their communities while fostering a sense of responsibility and independence. This approach aligns closely with Gandhian educational philosophy, particularly his concept of Nai Talim (Basic Education), which advocates for an integrated model of learning that combines academic and vocational training. Gandhi believed that education should develop not only the intellect (head) but also moral values (heart) and practical skills (hands). This holistic approach sought to nurture well-rounded individuals who were not just academically proficient but also socially responsible, skilled in craftsmanship, and rooted in ethical principles. By emphasising practical learning alongside intellectual development, Nai Talim aimed to prepare students for a life of self-reliance and service to their communities. According to Gandhi, true education goes beyond academic learning; it fosters self-reliance and social responsibility. He believed that education should nurture not only intellectual abilities but also moral character, ensuring that students develop into compassionate and ethical individuals. Gandhi’s vision was to cultivate a sense of duty towards society, encouraging students to contribute positively to their communities. Through Nai Talim or Basic Education, he sought to create an education system that empowered individuals with practical skills, ethical values, and a deep sense of social commitment, enabling them to lead meaningful, service-oriented lives.

Nai Talim emphasised the dignity of labour and the development of practical skills, advocating for an education system that nurtured students intellectually, physically, and morally. Gandhi’s model stands in stark contrast to China’s examination-centric approach, which prioritises intellectual achievement while often neglecting ethical development and emotional well-being. By integrating experiential learning and vocational training, the Indian indigenous education system promotes a holistic approach that equips students with not only academic knowledge but also life skills. This approach prepares them to contribute meaningfully to society, fostering responsible, well-rounded individuals capable of addressing both personal and community needs.

Gandhian Values: Ethical Development and Self-Reliance

Gandhian philosophy, a fundamental pillar of India’s indigenous education system, promotes a model of learning that integrates intellectual, emotional, and moral growth. Gandhi’s concept of Nai Talim emphasises the significance of character-building, ethical conduct, and communal responsibility, viewing education not just to acquire knowledge but as a process to shape a well-rounded individual. This approach fosters a deep sense of social awareness and personal integrity, aligning intellectual development with the values of compassion, self-reliance, and moral responsibility. Gandhi believed that education should nurture personal integrity and self-reliance, empowering students with skills that contribute to both individual development and the welfare of the community. His philosophy advocates for an educational system that honours each student’s unique abilities, fostering curiosity, moral reflection, and a deep sense of service to society. Through this approach, Gandhi envisioned education as a tool for holistic development, encouraging students to engage in meaningful, socially responsible actions while cultivating their own intellectual and ethical growth.

Gandhi’s approach stands in stark contrast to the Chinese model, which emphasises academic excellence through rigorous, high-stakes examinations. While the Chinese system fosters intense competition and academic achievement, it often places considerable pressure on students, prioritising intellectual success over emotional well-being and personal development. In contrast, Gandhi’s educational philosophy seeks to cultivate balanced individuals who are intellectually, morally, and emotionally mature. His emphasis on self-reliance, ethical conduct, and community responsibility encourages students to grow not just in academic knowledge but also in their capacity for empathy, social engagement, and personal integrity. By integrating vocational training, community involvement, and ethical teachings into the curriculum, Gandhian values align seamlessly with India’s indigenous education model, which emphasises a holistic approach to learning. Gandhi believed that education should be a transformative journey of self-discovery and social awareness, encouraging students to develop not only intellectual skills but also moral integrity and social responsibility. This philosophy challenges rigid, performance-oriented education systems, such as the examination-driven models, which often prioritise test scores over the development of character, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence. Gandhi’s vision advocates for an education that nurtures the whole person, fostering both individual growth and a deep sense of community engagement.

Examination Pressure and Psychological Impact

China’s education system is predominantly structured around high-stakes examinations, with the gaokao being the most crucial test determining students’ academic and career prospects. This examination-focused model fosters a highly competitive environment, where students are pressured to prioritise test performance above all else. As a result, many students experience significant psychological stress, including anxiety and burnout. Studies have highlighted the toll this system takes on students’ mental health, as they face overwhelming societal and familial expectations to excel and secure top scores, often at the expense of their well-being. The emphasis on standardised testing in China’s education system restricts opportunities for creative exploration and personal growth. Students are primarily trained to meet rigid academic benchmarks, leaving little room for fostering critical thinking, innovation, or ethical awareness. This narrow focus on performance often sidelines the development of holistic skills, such as problem-solving, emotional intelligence, and social responsibility, which are essential for well-rounded personal and intellectual development. As a result, students may excel in exams but struggle to cultivate the broader competencies needed for navigating complex real-world challenges.

This examination-driven structure stands in stark contrast to India’s indigenous education model, which emphasises practical knowledge, moral development, and emotional resilience. While the Chinese system prioritises academic performance, often at the expense of students’ mental health, India’s approach fosters a more balanced growth that nurtures intellectual curiosity alongside emotional well-being. In India’s traditional framework, education was not just about acquiring knowledge, but about developing character, fostering social responsibility, and preparing students for life beyond exams. As such, India’s system seeks to promote personal development alongside academic achievement, creating more well-rounded individuals. The Indian model’s focus on community-based learning and ethical values offers a more holistic approach, fostering students’ psychological well-being. By prioritising personal growth and moral development alongside academic learning, it allows students to engage with education in a less pressurised environment, free from the constraints of high stakes testing. This approach encourages curiosity, emotional resilience, and a deeper connection to the community, providing a more balanced educational experience that nurtures both the mind and the character.

Ideological Control and Limited Intellectual Autonomy

The Chinese education system is also distinctive for its alignment with state ideology, where academic instruction often incorporates elements of political indoctrination. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, education has been utilised as a tool to foster ideologically loyal citizens, promoting values rooted in Marxist and socialist principles. This integration of political education ensures that students not only acquire academic knowledge but also internalise state-approved narratives and ideologies, reinforcing the country’s political framework and shaping societal norms. This state-centric approach restricts intellectual autonomy, as students are primarily exposed to perspectives that uphold state-sanctioned ideologies. Educational content, particularly in subjects like history and social studies, is often curated to align with political objectives, limiting students’ access to diverse viewpoints. This selective approach to knowledge discourages critical thinking and intellectual inquiry, as students are taught to accept predetermined narratives rather than engage with the complexities of various issues or explore alternative perspectives. Consequently, the focus is placed on conformity rather than fostering independent, analytical, and critical thought.

In contrast, India’s indigenous education model fosters intellectual independence and ethical exploration, encouraging students to engage with diverse perspectives and develop their own judgments. Rooted in Gandhian values, the model emphasises critical thinking, moral inquiry, and the development of independent ethical frameworks. This approach not only nurtures intellectual autonomy but also promotes the idea that education should be a process of self-discovery, where students are encouraged to question, reflect, and form values that align with both personal integrity and societal well-being. It enables students to engage deeply with the world around them, cultivating a sense of responsibility, empathy, and moral clarity. This approach aligns with democratic values, empowering students to actively participate in civic life and make informed, independent decisions. By emphasising ethical development and intellectual freedom, India’s indigenous education system prepares students for responsible citizenship in a pluralistic society. It encourages critical thinking, fosters respect for diverse viewpoints, and nurtures an understanding of social responsibility. This model offers a viable alternative to education systems that prioritise ideological conformity, providing students with the tools to navigate a complex world while upholding values of justice, equality, and personal integrity.

Cultural Relevance and Inclusivity

The Indian indigenous education system’s respect for linguistic diversity and cultural identity makes it highly relevant in a multicultural society. By promoting mother-tongue instruction, this model not only supports cognitive development but also nurtures cultural awareness. It enables students to relate learning to their everyday experiences, fostering a deeper connection to their heritage while simultaneously enhancing their academic abilities. This approach recognises the importance of language in shaping thought, identity, and community, ensuring that education remains grounded in the cultural and social contexts of the learners. This inclusivity aligns with democratic principles, ensuring that education is accessible and meaningful for students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. By valuing linguistic diversity, India’s indigenous education system fosters a sense of belonging and cultural pride among all students. In contrast, China’s monolingual policy, which mandates Mandarin as the sole language of instruction, often marginalises regional dialects and suppresses cultural expression. This top-down approach can create a disconnect among ethnic minorities, limiting their cultural representation and making it harder for them to fully engage with the educational process.

India’s indigenous education system places a high value on each community’s cultural heritage, offering a personalised educational experience that nurtures a deep sense of belonging. This system promotes national unity through its celebration of diversity, recognising that education plays a key role in preserving cultural identities while fostering social cohesion. By accommodating the unique needs and traditions of different communities, the Indian model demonstrates adaptability, ensuring that education remains both relevant and inclusive. It reflects a broader vision of education that not only builds academic skills but also strengthens the fabric of a diverse society.

NEP 2020: Integrating Indigenous Values with Global Competitiveness
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 marks a significant step toward revitalising India’s indigenous education values, integrating Gandhian principles, cultural inclusivity, and experiential learning into the formal education system. By prioritising mother-tongue instruction in early education, NEP 2020 aligns closely with the indigenous model’s emphasis on accessibility and cultural relevance, ensuring that students connect learning with their linguistic and cultural roots. This approach not only promotes cognitive development but also strengthens cultural identity, reflecting the policy’s commitment to providing an inclusive and contextually rich educational experience for all learners. This policy shift highlights the cognitive advantages of learning in a familiar language, which supports students’ cognitive and emotional development during their formative years. By fostering an environment where children can engage with content in their mother tongue, NEP 2020 helps enhance comprehension, critical thinking, and emotional connection to the material. This approach also reduces the cognitive load of learning in a second language, allowing students to grasp complex concepts more effectively and with greater ease. Ultimately, this shift reinforces the importance of culturally relevant education in nurturing well-rounded, confident learners.

By fostering a balance between academic learning and practical skills, the NEP echoes Nai Talim’s emphasis on self-reliance, moral integrity, and community engagement. This shift encourages students to participate in meaningful, hands-on activities that not only enhance their intellectual and physical development but also nurture their ethical growth. In line with Gandhian principles, the policy advocates for an education that prepares students to contribute positively to society by developing a sense of responsibility, empathy, and social awareness. Through this integrated approach, the NEP seeks to cultivate well-rounded individuals capable of addressing both personal and societal challenges. Through the integration of indigenous values, NEP 2020 establishes a holistic educational framework that addresses the diverse needs of Indian society. By prioritising inclusivity, cultural relevance, and practical skills, it fosters a model of learning that is not only rooted in India’s rich traditions but also future-oriented. This comprehensive approach aims to equip students with the intellectual, ethical, and practical tools needed to navigate a rapidly changing world, ensuring that education remains adaptable and relevant to the challenges of the 21st century.

A unique feature of NEP 2020 is its strong commitment to cultural preservation, which emphasises the integration of indigenous knowledge, traditional arts, and ethical education into the curriculum. By advocating for mother-tongue instruction in early education, the policy not only supports cognitive development but also strengthens cultural ties, ensuring that students retain a deep sense of pride in their heritage. This approach helps foster a strong connection to local traditions while also promoting a more inclusive and culturally resonant education system. The policy’s inclusion of indigenous knowledge and ethical learning reflects the view that education should serve not only economic and technical objectives but also social and cultural goals. This approach reinforces the indigenous principle that education must contribute to both individual growth and communal well-being, fostering a well-rounded development that nurtures students’ intellectual, moral, and cultural identities. By integrating these values, NEP 2020 strives to create an education system that is as rooted in social responsibility and cultural preservation as it is in academic achievement. NEP 2020 promotes a broad-based curriculum that encourages students to explore multiple fields of study, inspired by the interdisciplinary learning practices of India’s ancient centres of knowledge like Nalanda and Takshashila. By integrating various disciplines, this flexible approach nurtures intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, and adaptability—skills that are essential in the modern workforce. It not only prepares students for diverse career paths but also cultivates a holistic understanding of the world, equipping them to navigate complex, interconnected challenges. NEP’s integration of vocational and skill-based education from early grades reflects the core principles of the indigenous model, which emphasises hands-on learning. By equipping students with practical skills from a young age, the policy prepares them for economic resilience and personal empowerment. This approach ensures that education is not only academically enriching but also relevant to real-world needs, fostering a workforce capable of adapting to a rapidly changing economy while maintaining a sense of self-reliance and social responsibility. NEP 2020 offers pathways for both academic and vocational pursuits, thereby accommodating diverse career aspirations and making education more accessible and relevant. Recognising the global shift towards digitalisation, the policy integrates digital literacy and STEM education as core components. This inclusion equips students with essential skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, ensuring they are prepared for the technology-driven industries of the future. By emphasising digital proficiency, NEP 2020 helps India’s workforce remain competitive in emerging sectors like software development, data science, and artificial intelligence, thus aligning with global trends while fostering innovation. This emphasis on technology reflects India’s long-standing openness to new knowledge and its education system’s adaptability and forward-thinking nature. As the Fourth Industrial Revolution reshapes global economies, NEP 2020’s focus on digital literacy equips students with the skills necessary to thrive in an increasingly tech-driven world. By fostering a workforce adept in digital tools and technologies, NEP enhances India’s capacity to meet both domestic and global demands for skilled professionals, ensuring the country remains competitive in emerging industries while nurturing innovation and growth.

NEP 2020 also aims to position India as a global education hub, promoting collaborations with foreign institutions and attracting international students to the country. This initiative draws on India’s rich legacy of intellectual openness, exemplified by ancient learning centres like Nalanda and Takshashila, which welcomed scholars from diverse backgrounds. By fostering academic exchanges, collaborative research, and cross-cultural learning, NEP 2020 not only enriches the Indian educational landscape but also strengthens India’s presence in the global academic community. These efforts support India’s vision of becoming a competitive destination for international education, creating a vibrant, multicultural learning environment that benefits both domestic and international students.

India’s indigenous education system, rooted in community support, ethical values, and practical knowledge, offers a compelling alternative to China’s examination-driven, ideologically centralised model. Promoting linguistic diversity, intellectual autonomy, and cultural inclusivity, India’s model fosters well-rounded individuals prepared for success in an interconnected world. NEP 2020 builds upon these foundational values, modernising the education system while honouring cultural heritage. By emphasising multidisciplinary learning, digital literacy, and international engagement, NEP 2020 positions India as a leader in inclusive, adaptable education. Enhanced by NEP 2020, India’s indigenous education exemplifies a holistic approach that values cultural heritage, cognitive flexibility, and ethical grounding. This system balances traditional values with global competencies, producing graduates who are not only skilled and knowledgeable but also culturally grounded and globally prepared to thrive in diverse international contexts.

Indian cities like Bengaluru, Varanasi, Allahabad, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Kota have emerged as prominent hubs of education and knowledge dissemination. Kota, for instance, has seen significant economic growth driven by its thriving coaching industry, attracting students from across the country. At the same time, there has been a surge in the number of Indian students studying abroad, particularly in countries like the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia, where Indian students now form a substantial portion of the international student population. This trend is largely fuelled by India’s strong reputation for producing highly skilled graduates in fields like engineering, computer science, medicine, and business.

When compared to Chinese graduates, Indian students often have better employment prospects abroad, particularly in countries that value advanced technical expertise and strong communication skills. For example, Indian professionals have found considerable success in Silicon Valley, with many rising to high-level positions at companies like Google, Microsoft, and Adobe. Sundar Pichai (CEO of Alphabet) and Satya Nadella (CEO of Microsoft) are prime examples of this trend, both having received their foundational education in India before excelling on the global stage. Indian-trained doctors and healthcare professionals are similarly well-regarded in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Middle East, where their clinical expertise is in high demand. In contrast to China, where language and cultural barriers can present challenges, Indian graduates benefit from their proficiency in English, adaptability, and familiarity with global workplace environments. This linguistic advantage has translated into greater success in high-skill industries, with a strong demand for Indian talent in sectors such as information technology, finance, engineering, and healthcare.